VOCATONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FOR SELF-RELIANCE IN NIGERIA

VOCATONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FOR SELF-RELIANCE IN NIGERIA ABSTRACT Education is essential for economic and social development of a country. Developing individuals to be well trained and motivated in vocational trade will be a step in the right direction. Vocational and technical education is concerned with the acquisition of knowledge and skills for the world of work. This is any education, training and learning activity leading to the acquisition of knowledge, understanding and skills which are relevant for employment or self-employment. This article addresses the importance of enforcing vocational and technical education in the country. The steps which the government has taken promoting vocational and technical education are also explained in the article. Since the efforts of the government in promoting vocational and technical education in the country have been little, recommendations on how to solve the re-occurring problems of the subject have been highlighted vividly. INTRODUCTION Vocational education is a form of education that prepares people for specific trades, crafts and careers at various levels from a technician or a professional position in engineering, medicine, architecture, pharmacy, law, etc. vocational training is also referred to as vocational education or technical education. The education is particularly based on manual or practical activities, traditionally non-academic, related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation. Adeleye and Abiola (2013) noted that vocational and technical education is an integral part of general education that is meant to prepare a person in the practical aspect of a chosen career. Awotunde (1993) also notedthat vocational and technical education involves all programmes aimed at developing the cognitive skills of the learners. Thus, vocational education is that part of total educational system, which offers courses leading to the acquisition of specific skills to enable one to perform certain job. Vocational and Technical education is necessary in this present world to reduce the load of people waiting on white collar jobs to survive. Individuals endowed with these vocational skills can be self employed and employers of labours as well. IMPORTANCE OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION • Vocational education is prepares a person for a specific job. It equips a person with skills and qualities required to do a particular job, such as fashion designing, interior decoration, computer networking, auto repairing, etc. Since local employers are sometimes brought to enlighten the students on the subject, the students gain more practical experience. • Vocational education promotes self employment thereby encouraging entrepreneurship. The individual is equipped adequately with the required skills thereby providing the liberty to establish self owned business. Since there are little or no jobs in the country, vocational education provides employment to people with this knowledge. • Vocational educational reduces the rate of unemployment in a country. Individuals with vocational skills can establish firms where they can engage their acquired skills. With this they can employ people to work with them as well as train them in the same trade. DEVELOPMENT OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA Hernes (2004) discussed that “most education came about through participation, preparation for work and adult life happened by interaction, not through training in separate specific institutions”. He further enunciated that young people took on the tasks of their parents when production remained stable over generations. All they needed to know was what their parents knew i.e. how to till and irrigate the soil, how to stitch a dress, where to fish and hunt, how to feed the herd. Amoor (2011) noted that the fundamental change in mode of education has come about as a result of fundamental changes in modes of production. As population diversity increased further, division of labour became beneficial. Rather than inheriting skills, it became more valuable to specialize and learn a particular trade. Such skills could only be learned from masters of that trade, who were not always parents.. OBJECTIVES OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA Danko (2006), stated the objectives of vocational education to be preparing learners for entry into employment in his or her chosen career, meet the manpower need for the society, increase the option available to each student, motivating force to enhance all types of learning and enable the learner to wisely select a career. The National Policy on Education Reviewed (2004) stressed the goal of technical and vocational education to include; • provide trained manpower in the applied sciences, technology and business particularly at craft, advanced crafts and technical levels • provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial and economic development • give training and impart necessary skills to individuals who shall be self-reliant economically. ACTIVITIES OF THE GOVERNMENT TO ACTUALIZE THESE GOALS The government has in a number of ways tried to institutionize vocational education in Nigeria through various ways which include: • Establishment of the Yaba technical college which was a conversion of the Yaba Higher College due to the recommendation of the Elliot Commission on higher education of 1945Ajayi (1963). • The Federal government collaborated with the African Development Bank (AFDB) to embark on skill training and promote vocational education in the country to spur self-reliance and entrepreneurship employment. • Various state governments have also been empowering youths in their states with vocational education and provision of equipments such as sewing machines, clippers, hairdryers, etc. PROBLEMS OF VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION IN NIGERIA • The society regards does engaged in vocational trades as lower in rank to individuals with western education. Amoor (2009) noted that most parents do not encourage or guide their wards to take a course in Vocational and Technical Education programme in Nigerian universities; this is because the society does not place any significant value or dignity on the programme.. • The cost of acquiring equipments to operate in vocational trade is sometimes too expensive. Most people can’t afford this equipments resulting in neglect of the trade and the government is not ready to sponsor this individuals. CONCLUSION Vocational education should be seen as the answer to unemployment in the country but only few individuals have taken it upon themselves to engage in vocational trades. Developed countries like China, Korea and Japan have decided to pursue technical education rather than western education which have resulted in these countries leading in mechanized and electrical device production. RECOMMENDATION The following recommendations can help solve the problems of vocational and technical education in Nigeria; • The government should not only organize training but also provide equipments for these individuals to practice what they have learnt. • Industries engaged in vocational trade should organize training for individuals to give them practical experience and also provide employment for these individuals after training. REFERENCES 1. Adeleye, S.T. and Abiola, F.R.(2013) Vocational and Technical Education for self-reliance in Nigeria. Vol.8.(2):52-59 2. Ajayi Frank(1963) Art and craft for the Nigeria Students:Ibadan, Longman Publishers. 3. Apa (2013): www.Starafrica .com 4. Amoor, S.S.(2009).The challenges of vocational and Technical Education Programme in Nigeria Universities. 5. Awotunde P.O(1993) Preparation of Vocational and Technical Education Teachers for Technological Advancement in Nigeria issue, problems And strategies Education Today vol. 6(3): 33-36. 6. Danko, A.I (2006): Entrepreneurship Education for Vocational and Technical Education Students - Second edition. Pp 2-3. 7. Fafunwa,A.B.(192) New Prospective in Africa Education (Review). 8. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2004) National Policy of Education (Review) Lagos NNERCD Press. 9. Hernes G. (2004): International Institute for Educational Planning News letter Vol. xxii(3) Pp.3. 10. Okocha M.(2009) Parental Attitudes toward vocational Education:Implication For counseling. Vol2.(1).

Public Library Staff Motivation

Public Library Staff Motivation The public library can be defined as a library that meets the educational, religious, social, cultural needs of the people in which it exist without affiliations to social, cultural, religious. It has wide range of collections and services. It is a library that is accessible by the general public and is generally funded from public sources (taxes) and operated by civil servants. It is a library for everybody and nobody in particular. Public libraries exist in many countries across the world and are often considered an essential part of having an educated and literate population. They provide free services such as preschool story times to encourage appreciation of literature in adults. The public library is been operated by civil servants who need to be encouraged to perform their duties effectively and efficiently Motivation Motivation is a psychological feature that arouses an organism to act towards a desired goal and elicits, controls, and sustains certain goal directed behaviors. It can be considered a driving force; a psychological one that compels or reinforces an action toward a desired goal. Motivation is an inner drive to behave or act in a certain manner. It's the difference between waking up before dawn to pound the pavement and lazing around the house all day. Halepota (2005) conceives motivation as a person’s active participation and commitment to achieve the prescribed results. He averts that the concept of motivation is an abstract construct because different strategies produce different results at different times and there is no single strategy that can produce guaranteed favorable results all the times. Cole (1996) opines that motivation is the term used to describe those processes, both instinctive and rational by which people seek to satisfy their basic drives, perceived needs and personal goals which trigger performance. Halepota (2005) conceives motivation as a person’s active participation and commitment to achieve the prescribed results. He averts that the concept of motivation is an abstract construct because different strategies produce different results at different times and there is no single strategy that can produce guaranteed favorable results all the times. Types of Motivation Motivation can be divided into two types: intrinsic (internal) motivation and extrinsic (external) motivation. Intrinsic motivation Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself, and exists within the individual rather than relying on external pressures or a desire for reward. Intrinsic motivation has been studied since the early 1970s. Students who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly as well as work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities.Students are likely to be intrinsically motivated if they: • attribute their educational results to factors under their own control, also known as autonomy • believe they have the skills to be effective agents in reaching their desired goals, also known as self-efficacy beliefs • are interested in mastering a topic, not just in achieving good grades Extrinsic motivation Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity in order to attain an outcome, whether or not that activity is also intrinsically motivated. Extrinsic motivation comes from outside of the individual. Common extrinsic motivations are rewards (for example money or grades) for showing the desired behavior, and the threat of punishment following misbehavior. Competition is in an extrinsic motivator because it encourages the performer to win and to beat others, not simply to enjoy the intrinsic rewards of the activity. A cheering crowd and the desire to win a trophy are also extrinsic incentives. Library staffs motivation Motivation of library staffs is a very essential part of the attribute of a manager of any organization. If the library staff is not motivated about their job in any way, motivating members will be a huge challenge. Motivation is at the core of everything librarians do and work toward. Libraries and librarians are supposed to be community focused; without understanding what motives drive the community they are part of, fulfilling the needs of the community and serving their members is a tall order Any lack of motivation among staff is a hurdlethat should be explored and addressed in some way before any real progress will be made outside of the library. Abimbola (1997) in his investigation of the level of motivation among librarians and para-professionals in Nigerian university libraries reveal a general dissatisfaction with training opportunities, professional development, work environment, sabbatical leave, communication, and management style.Rowley (1996) states that staff are a key resource and account for a significant component of the budget of libraries. It has been noted that public libraries in this part of the world have not been well motivated since it is seen as a pest in the budget of the state. It is seen as an unnecessary entity that takes money doing nothing. With this point, library staffs have not been well motivated. Ways of Motivating Library Staffs There are various ways to motivate public library staffs. They include: 1. Adequate Remuneration: it has been noted that public library staffs are not adequately remunerated compared to their counterparts in order type of libraries. They are paid less and this has demoralized them. Remuneration of staffs adequately motivates them to work harder and effectively. 2. Organization of seminars: organizing seminars for the staffs and allowing them to attend seminars with other librarians motivates them and allow them to know how things are done. 3. Awarding staff: The authority of the library should make it a point of duty to award performance of staffs. The best performing staffs of the library should be awarded probably on an annual basis. Thus, this will motivate other staffs to work harder in order for them to be rewarded the coming year. 4. Provision of modern day technology: provision of technology like online LC for cataloguing of materials encourages them to catalogue more materials unlike using the traditional method of cataloguing 5. Providing conducive working environment: a good working environment encourages librarians to be persuaded to work. Well-built and air conditioned offices have being an agent of full staff utilization. 6. Staff Promotion: Promotion is an agent for motivation, in this light, librarian is allowed to go on an extensive training to increase their base knowledge. Such as on the job training 7. On the Job Training: libraries of all types routinely do on-the-job training focused only on skills and knowledge that library assistants need to perform the task specific of their jobs. Ajidahun (2007) reports that on–the–job training is the most popular training method employed by most Nigerian universities he surveyed. He attributed this to the fact that university libraries could not afford to release their staff to go back to school either for part– or full–time studies. He further stressed that it has cost implications for the university system. According to him, “One wonders how many can be released at a time to go for formal education. An average library manager will be concerned with who will carry out the duties of such staff while they are away. Thus it is far easier to allow on–the–job training. Effect of lack of motivation among library staffs 1. Poor working habit: when librarians are not motivated to work, their attitude to work will be non-challant. They take their work with levity. Motivation of staffs ensures that work is done effectively and efficiently. In a typical library situation, when staffs are not motivated, the number of books to be processed will be reduced and also adequate security of library materials will not be ensured. 2. Poor living condition:poor living condition is as a result of low income. Staffs can be demotivated when their income is relatively low. They tend to operate on a living standard that is very low. They eat from hand to mouth. 3. Low self-esteem: lack of motivation leads to less admiration of staffs by the society. They are not envied and nobody will want to emulate them. A well-motivated staff advertises his/her firm indirectly. People will see them and want to be like them. This is not the case of a demotivated staff; they earn little or no respect from the society. 4. High scale of absenteeism: little or no motivation leads to a high level of absenteeism. The staffs feel the reward they get is not justifying the work they are doing. They come to work late and leave early or do not even come at all. This is rampant in government establishments. References 1. Abimbola, A. (1997). Motivating staff in Nigerian university libraries. Library Management, 18(3): 124 -128. 2. Ajidahun, C.O. (2007). The training, development, and education of library manpower in Information technology in university libraries in Nigeria. World Libraries, 17(1):http://www.worlib.org/vol17no1/print/ajidahun_print.html 3. Cole, G.A. (1996). Management theory and practice. New Delhi: Martins. 4. Halepota, H.A. (2005). Motivational theories and their application in construction. Cost Engineering, 47(3): 14-18. 5. Rowley, J. (1996). Motivation of staff in libraries. library management 17(5): 31-35.

Bloggers code of conduct by Tim O’Reilly

Bloggers code of conduct by Tim O’Reilly

1.  Label your tolerance level for abusive comments.
2. Consider eliminating anonymous comments.
3. Ignore the trolls.
4. Take the conversation offline, and talk directly, or find an intermediary who can do so.
5. If you know someone who is behaving badly, tell them so.
6. Don't say anything online that yo
7. Take responsibility not just for your own words, but for the comments you allow on your blog.
8. u wouldn't say in person.

Oyegunle John

simple example of a bookstore business plan by Oyegunle John

Executive Summary
DOT Books is a new bookstore in Abeokuta, Ogun State. It is the goal of the company management to acquire local market share from the various publishers in the South west region of the country at agreed prices, sell academic institution and interested individuals. Taking Evans publishing house, Macmillan and University Press as major suppliers of the books.
Description of Business
This section gives vivid description of the organization detailing its mission and goals, management, company structure and size with the location.

Categorization
DOT Books will be a partnership business registered in Ogun state. The company will be jointly owned by Mr. Oyegunle John and his friend Miss Dasaolu Olusola. Mr. John is the dominant partner and the brain behind the business while Miss Dasaolu is just a financial supporter.

History
Mr. John is establishing this firm as a growth oriented endeavor in order to supplement is casual work as a librarian at the Federal University of Agriculture Abeokuta, provides recommended books for students at the university, supply the university library books, continue meeting people with similar interest and leave a viable business for his children.

Business Location and Size
DOT Books will be establishing its store at Obantoko, one of the busiest areas in Abeokuta holding a very large number of students in the University. Our facility is a former 10,000 square ft. furniture store which allows the company to stock a large amount of inventory.

Missions and Goals
DOT Books’ mission is to provide the recommended books by the university and lecturers to the student at ease, provision of various research materials to interested researchers in the academic area. We also intend to provide a comfortable atmosphere for clients to relax and browse at affordable prices. Lastly, we intend to be the biggest bookstore in the state after 20years of establishment.

Description of product and services
DOT Books will offer a wide range of books, magazines and music collections. This will majorly consist of textbooks recommended by the university, and fiction and non-fiction books, science, art, and business categories. The music collection will contain music from students of the university, hip-hop music and other related songs. We will also be offering a search and order service for customers seeking to find hard to get items. A mini reading room will be provided inside the store for readers who intend to read through some books.

Market Analysis
As it has been noticed that the state has recorded a very few establishment of bookstores, DOT Books have decided to take advantage of this business opportunity to meet the targeted audience of the entirety of the students in the university.
Bookstores in the state have recorded low rate of sales due to the fact that they acquire general subject materials which residents in the area are most likely not interested in.

Target Market
DOT Books decided to target the students, researchers and staffs mainly which in the process other individuals can come in to purchase their needs.

Marketing Plan
The firm intends to market its services through various methods. The firm intends to use the advertising medium to draw in customers i.e. the use of radio jingles and television advert.. But before this, the management has brought the idea that the first year will be used to distribute fliers and paste postal around the town. Creation of a Facebook page has been regarded as essential in the marketing strategy.
During the move to promote sales in the first year, any customer that buys more than a book will be given a free book. This attempt will tend to attract more customers due to the promotion. The firm also intends to give discount on some very expensive book materials by reducing the price of some materials.

Operational Plan
Hours of operation
The bookstore will be opened by 9am every day of the week except on Sundays and will close by 5pm every day.

Staffing
From the outset all staff will have job descriptions, a career and training history file, and a record of employee reviews. New staffs must have school certificates while the administrative staffs must have degrees in any information course. They will also undergo training before they are allowed to carry out any activity in the library. Indecent dressing by members of the firm will not be tolerated. The management intends to employ not more than ten staffs in the first year of business.

Financial Plan
The firm is intending to start up business with the sum of N2 million gotten from personal savings of Mr. John and support from Miss Dasaolu. It has been noted that for the first couple of months, loss will be recorded before advertising begin to take effect and draw in more customers. DOT Books intends to get a loan of N1.5 million from the Guarantee Trust Bank to pay the publishers that might have been owned and increase the quantity of products acquired. With tis, we do not anticipate any cash flow problems over the next three years.

Risk Analysis and Contingency Planning
The management during its meeting has planned ahead for risk which may come in the nearest future. The risk might be in form of loss i.e. not making profit. We intend to make provisions for bad debt in every of our financial plan. There are provisions for extra savings of  some percentage of the profit gained every year in case of any unexpected contingency.




Dedicated to Dasaolu Olusola Toluwanimi

history, philosophy, challenges,nature, roles of academic library in nigeria by OYEGUNLE JOHN

POSTED BY OYEGUNLE JOHN
INTRODUCTION
This paper will examine the nature of academic; the meaning. The paper will also examine the history of academic libraries; how the academic library evolved over time, the trends in academic libraries.
The paper will also look at the philosophy of the academic libraries; the comprehensive system of the library and the belief of the library. The services also delivered by the academic libraries are thoroughly explained in this paper.
The purpose for the establishment of the academic library is also identified in the paper coupling it with its roles i.e. its functions.  The challenges faced by the academic libraries are also examined.
NATURE OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
An academic library is a library that is attached to academic institutions above the secondary level, serving the teaching and research needs of students and staff. These libraries serve two complementary purposes: to support the school's curriculum, and to support the research of the university faculty and students. Academic libraries are information centers established in support of the mission of their parent institutions to generate knowledge, equip people with knowledge in order to serve the society and advance the well being of mankind. Khanna defines academic libraries as those special libraries found in educational institutions and whose main purpose is to the special purpose of serving the special needs of the specialized or homogenous clientele.
The academic library in an educational institution also plays a part in supporting the research efforts and this role is more stronger in academic libraries than in public libraries, The library helps to conserve the research potential of the university or college . Aguolu (2002), noted that the university library is the heart of the university. This is because, the academic health, intellectual vitality and effectiveness of any university depends largely upon the state of health and excellence of its library which is its lifeblood.
HISTORY OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
Initially,  libraries and academic institutions existed outside of each other for hundreds of years. At the time, the method of teaching revolved around a professorial lecture and student recitation, though sometimes a lecture would be turned over to the university to be copied and purchased by students. As more lectures were copied and more copies of older lectures were reproduced, a storehouse for these materials took shape. By 1338, what is considered to be the first (ancient) academic library, the library at Sorbonne (University of Paris), contained over 1700 volumes of lectures. As more writing became available universities saw the value in having books that could not be included into the course of studies. Sir Thomas Bodley, a benefactor of the University of Oxford took it upon himself not just to fund the library collection, but to travel the continent to buy books on many subjects. (Budd, 1998) By 1605 it was noted to have contained more than 5000 books and manuscripts. The number of universities aided by the advent of printing, continued to grow and their curriculums broadened, reflecting a rise in literacy and a trend towards scholarship. It was during this period in the colonies that Harvard University was established. In 1638 John Harvard donated £800 and 300 books to establish what we know as the first state-side academic library. In 1667 Harvard’s first librarian was appointed. Use of the library was limited to senior members of the university and the library was only open from 11 am until 1pm. (Budd, 1998) Access was limited as no catalog system existed until 1723 and even then they were usually arranged by size or donor. By the beginning of the 20th century there was definitely a shift from collection and preservation, to utility, and academic libraries began granting more access to faculty and some to students. The increase in use meant a need for more services, extended hours and more staff. As Institutions took a more active role in funding library collections and creating comfortable facilities, the library became less of a place to store dusty books and more of a place for dynamic learning. The first colleges in the United States were intended to train members of the clergy. The libraries associated with these institutions largely consisted of donated books on the subjects of theology and the classics. In 1766, Yale had approximately 4,000 volumes, second only to Harvard. Access to these libraries was restricted to faculty members and a few students: the only staff was a part-time faculty member or the president of the college. The priority of the library was to protect the books, not to allow patrons to use them. In 1849, Yale was open 30 hours a week, the University of Virginia was open nine hours a week, Columbia University four, and Bowdoin College only three. Students instead created literary societies and assessed entrance fees in order to build a small collection of usable volumes often in excess of what the university library held.

PHILOSOPHY ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
Philosophy of an academic library focuses on providing an active learning space and diverse services to meet the various needs of students, faculty, staff, parents, and alumni of The Wellington School community. Services such as 24/7 access to print and online resources, individual and group instruction and literature promotion offer students the opportunity to    become lifelong readers, learners and leaders. The Library supports the school curriculum and the lifelong learning of students, faculty, staff and parents by fostering positive attitudes toward reading. The Library provides more than 35,000 print volumes and seven subscription databases suitable for the community. The Library is open nearly 50 hours a week. With the online catalog and subscription databases, the community has access to many library materials and services 24/7. By providing students and faculty with new or unfamiliar resources and services, the librarians are able to enrich and expand or reshape learning and teaching. By actively reaching out beyond requests for materials and assistance, by anticipating needs and by maintaining a high profile in the life of the school, the librarians are active participants in the educational process.
PURPOSE OF THE ACADEMIC LIBRARY
The purpose of the academic libraries of higher education is advancement of learning and acquisition of knowledge.
The first purpose of academic of libraries, therefore, has been to be there when they were required. It is not possible to create a library instantly. It takes time. So most libraries are passive institutions, waiting to be used. Nor is it possible to purchase books or pamphlets or journals instantaneously, even in the electronic age.
The second purpose of libraries, therefore, has been to acquire, to make accessible and to preserve information which a user may need, to have the information ready when the person realises their need for that information.



ROLES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
The role of the academic library is to serve the mission of the system under which it has been created, which includes community colleges, technical colleges, junior colleges, 4-year colleges and universities. The support of teaching requires material for class readings and for student papers. In the past, the material for class readings, intended to supplement lectures as prescribed by the instructor, has been called reserves. In the period before electronic resources became available, the reserves were supplied as actual books or as photocopies of appropriate journal articles. Traditionally, one copy of a book was made available for each 10 students — this is practical for large classes only if paperback copies are available, and the books reused from term to term.
Another role is to provide a service of reference and lending material appropriate to the needs of the staff and students of the institution.
The academic library provides education and this means that it should be used as a dynamic instrument for explaining and expanding the horizons of knowledge .Khanna notes that it exists to feed and nourish the intellect of students and staff and also invite all those who enter its portals to fully participate its intellectual and cultural life
Wilson and Tauber note that the role of  modern academic libraries range from conserving knowledge , teaching, research and development, publication to promote academic visibility, extension services and interpretation.
Beenham and Harrison define the main objectives of an academic library as; to serve the needs of the academic community, to provide reference materials at appropriate levels, to provide study areas for users, to provide a lending service appropriate to the different types of users and to provide an active information service
CHALLENGES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES
Funding
Funding is a very great problem for the various libraries. The academic institutions that host the libraries do not most times allocate adequate funds for the growth of the library. In Nigeria, corruption had enveloped the life of our leaders. The little fund allocated for  the library are not well spent
Invisible Infrastructure
Another component is the invisible content and costs of libraries. Many users are simply unaware of the expense of acquiring and managing information resources or the amount of value added by libraries and librarians. Considerable professional time and vast amounts of paraprofessional and clerical time are devoted to the processes of selecting, collecting, organizing, preserving, and conserving materials so that they are available for access. Despite the expanding scope of library services, more people seem to claim that they never go to the library anymore because everything they need is online.
The invisibility is partly due to the successes of the institution. Good library design means that people can find what they need, when they need it, in a form they want it. Good design is less obvious than bad design, and thus libraries risk being victims of their own success. The selection process requires a continuing dialog with the user community to determine current
needs, continuous scanning of available resources, and judicious application of financial resources. Once selected, the items are collected, whether in physical form or by acquiring access rights. This process, which requires negotiation with publishers and others who hold the rights to desired items, sometimes takes months or years, depending on the materials and the rights. As new items are acquired, metadata are created to describe their form, content, and relationship to other items in the collection. Once in the collection, resources must be preserved and conserved to ensure continuous availability over time. The invisibility of information work was identified long ago (Paisley, 1980), but the implications of this invisibility are only, now becoming widely apparent.
Content and Collections
Until very recently, libraries were judged by their collections rather than by their services. Scholars sought out, and traveled to, the great collections of the world. The collections of major libraries are much more than the sum of their parts; disparate items are brought together and relationships between items are identified. But what does it mean “to collect” in today’s environment, when libraries provide access to content for which no physical artifact is acquired? The question is further complicated by the fact that access may be temporary for the term of a contract, rather than (relatively) permanent, as for purchased material.
Preservation and Access
While little agreement may exist on the definition of a library “collection,” most librarians would agree that the collections must be preserved so that they remain accessible. Portions of physical collections are crumbling, and libraries are undertaking cooperative efforts to preserve the content, physical artifacts, or both. Preservation of digital collections is yet more complex and potentially even more expensive than preserving printed resources. Most printed volumes will survive “benign neglect,” provided they are shelved under adequate climate controls. Digital resources must be continually migrated to new software and new technologies; active management is required for preservation (Smith, 1999). When a library owns the rights to the digital content, the library presumably is responsible for maintaining continual access, absent other cooperative agreements.
Libraries face a broad range of challenges in preserving digital resources, including continual migration to new formats and new media as they become available. (Borgman, in press). Some of the preservation issues are within libraries’ sphere of influence, but many are outside their immediate control.
The major challenges include digitization of collections, electronic access and the subsequent privacy and intellectual property issues, competition from online search engines, information literacy, value added services for the “new” student and faculty including distance education students, and the education and skills needed by today’s librarian to address these issues.
.
SERVICES PROVIDED BYACADEMIC LIBRARIES.
The academic library performs myriad functions among which are
The use of RSS service to inform their users of library news and developments in a way that resembles the “news device” that many libraries still have, often in collaboration with the RSS service: changes to the library schedule, new acquisitions, library renovations, exhibitions. Etc.
Assisting staffs and students of the institution in acquisition of general information materials relevant to the curriculum and search interest of the users.
Provision of online information database   for their users so that they can access information on various information platforms. The use of databases is very relevant. AGORA, TEEAL, HINARI, etc.
Education of  library users on the importance of the library and benefits that can be derived from using the library is another service rendered by academic libraries.
CONCLUSION
The academic library is very essential to the existence of the academic institution. Academic libraries must decide what focus they take in collecting materials since no single library can supply everything. When there are particular areas of specialization in academic libraries these are often referred to as niche collections. These collections are often the basis of a special collection department and may include original papers, artwork, and artifacts written or created by a single author or about a specific subject

REFERENCES
Khannaa,J.K.Fundementals of library organisation.New Delhi:Ess Ess Publications, 1987.
Budd, J. (1998). The Academic Library: Its Context, Its Purpose, and Its Operation Englewood: Libraries Unlimited.
Hoare, Peter (1997). Academic Libraries in International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science, Ed. John Feather and Paul Sturges. New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 2.
Beenham, Rosemary and Harrison,Collin..The basics of librarianship. 3rd.ed.London:Clive Bingley, 1990...
Budd, John. M.. The Academic Library: Its Context, Its Purpose, and Its Operation. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited., 2008.p. 30–31.
Paisley, W. J. (1980). Information and work. In B. Dervin & M. J. Voigt (Eds),Progress in the Communication Sciences (Vol. 2, pp. 114-165). Norwood, NJ:Ablex.
Lynch, C. A. (2001). Metadata Harvesting and the Open Archives Initiative. ARL Bimonthly Report 217, 1-9.
Borgman, C. L. (in press). The invisible library: paradox of the globalinformation infrastructure. Library Trends, Special Issue on Research Questions for the Field.
Wilson, L.and Tauber, M.F.(1980)Univesity libray.New York:Columbia, 1980.
Borgman, C. L. (2000). From Gutenberg to the Global Information Infrastructure: Access to Information in the Networked World. Cambridge, MA:The MIT Press.

THE MEDIA INDUSTRY

OYEGUNLE JOHN 

An Overview of the Media Industry

The media can also refer to the group of journalists and others who constitute the industry involved in providing these forms of communication. The media industry has continued to grow as demand for information has increased. Significant improvements in technology have allowed the industry to develop and duplicate products efficiently with very low production costs. Examples of this include developments in printing presses, advances in television and radio technology and the introduction of the internet as a new medium.
Such rapid developments in production methods have made the media industry very profitable, allowing media conglomerates to develop. Serious concerns have been raised about the issue of media ownership, with large corporations such as News Corporation and Time Warner leading a small group of media conglomerates that control a large proportion of the world's media. Many of the concerns raised relate to the apparent political and other viewpoints these corporations express through their media assets. However, the corporations themselves strongly deny that their assets reflect the opinions of the corporation. The media industry has undergone significant structural change, growing to become a pervasive and increasingly influential force in society. These structural changes are linked to the strategies pursued by the major media players as they respond to pressures from investors for short-term profits. In turn, these structural changes and industry strategies have raised significant questions and prompted key debates about the role and future of media.

Mass media refers collectively to all media technologies that are intended to reach a large audience via mass communication. John (2006) Broadcast media (also known as electronic media) transmit their information electronically and comprise television, film and radio, movies, CDs, DVDs and some other devices like cameras and video consoles. Alternatively, print media use a physical object as a means of sending their information, such as a newspaper, magazines, brochures, newsletters, books, leaflets and pamphlets. The term also refers to the organizations which control these technologies, such as television stations or publishing companies. Internet media is able to achieve mass media status in its own right, due to the many mass media services it provides, such as email, websites, blogging, Internet and television.

The media industry includes (Manohar, Uttara 2011):

1.      The print media- this includes the book, magazine and newspaper.

2.      Broad cast- Films, video games, audio recording and production

3.      Internet- blogs, RSS fields, Podcast, mobile

4.      Outdoor media

Relationship between media industry and social world

Michael O’Shaughnessy and Jane Stadler (Journalism 2A Reader) have analysed the relationship between society and the media by examining three key areas namely: Contemporary society, how the media works, the effects and influence of the media on the society. O’Shaughnessy and Stadler firstly noted three characteristics of contemporary society namely: change and crisis, inequality and difference, and maintaining conscent in western democracies.

The next area they focused on was the way in which media works. They gave three staring point positions which are: The first representation “media products do not show or represent the real world; they construct and re-present reality” The second interpretation “the media are just one of the ways by which we and society make sense of the world, or construct the world”. The final one, evaluation: “the media are owned, controlled, and created by certain groups who make sense of society on behalf of others”

Role of Media Industry in the Social World

The media industry has made a very special place for itself in our society and our lives. The media industry has become so important as food and clothing. The media industry is playing a very vital role in making the world small i.e. a situation where everybody can know what they want to know when they want to know it. Through the use of television, newspaper or internet, we are able to connect to a large number of people around us. According to Pember, (1987 :2), “mass media is constatntly supplying us with information, and influencing, educating or entertaining us”.

Smith S.E (2011) described the media using the mirror since it reflects each and everything about a society to us. In an article entitled Mass Media Influence on Society, Rayuso (2008) argues that the media is dominated by five major companies (Time Warner, VIACOM, Vivendi Universal, Walt Disney and News Corp) which own 95% of all mass media including theme parks, movie studios, television and radio broadcast networks and programing, video news, sports entertainment, telecommunications, wireless phones, video games software, electronic media and music companies. Whilst historically, there was more diversity in companies, they have recently merged to form an elite which have the power to shape the opinion and beliefs of people. People buy after seeing thousands of advertisements by various companies in TV, newspapers or magazines, which are able to affect their purchasing decisions. The definition of what is acceptable by society is dictated by the media. This power can be used for good, for example encouraging children to play sport. However, it can also be used for bad, for example children being influenced by cigars smoked by film stars, their exposure to sex images, their exposure to images of violence and their exposure to junk food ads. The documentary Supersize Me describes how companies like McDonalds have been sued in the past, the plaintiffs claiming that it was the fault of their liminal and subliminal advertising that "forced" them to perchance the product. The Barbie and Ken dolls of the 1950s are sometimes cited as the main cause for the obsession in modern day society for women to be skinny and men to be buff. After the attacks of 9/11, the media gave extensive coveage of the event and exposed Osama's guilt for the attack, information they were told by the authorities. This shaped the public opinion to support the war on terrorism, and later, the war on Iraq. A main concern is that due to this immense power of the mass media (being able to drive the public opinion), media receiving inaccurate information could cause the public opinion to support the wrong cause.

Impact of the media industry

Every coin has two sides. There are both positives and negatives of one single given notion. The media, known as the fourth pillar of democracy, has a huge impact on the society. The effects are of course, positive as well as negative. It is up to the people to decide which effect they want to bask in. Media is such a powerful tool that it literally governs the direction of our society today. It is the propeller as well as the direction provider of the society. Opinions can change overnight and celebrities can become infamous with just one wave by the media. Read how media affects the society today by reading its effects.

The Bright Side

·         Downing, John (2004) Information on the latest happenings reaches people in just a matter of minutes. The vision of media reaches even the remotest corners of the country and makes sure that everyone is aware of what is going on in the country. The easy and swift availability of any given information makes media one of the most reliable sources for forming public opinion. It bridges the gap between the leaders and the masses by becoming their channel of communication.

·         It brings into open the innumerable achievements that are going on in the country. Media gives ordinary people the power to reach out to the society as a whole. It can make heroes out of ordinary men. The media acts as a deterrent on corrupt practices and keeps a check on the working of the government. Media has significantly promoted social causes like literacy, health management, anti-dowry practices, discouraging female feticide, AIDS awareness, etc.

·         Manali Oak (2011)Research has revealed that media is responsible for influencing a major part of our daily life. Media contribute to a transformation in the cultural and social values of the masses. Media can bring about a change in the attitudes and beliefs of the common man. The persuasive nature of the content presented over media influences the thoughts and behavior of the general public. Media has a direct impact over the lifestyle of society.

On the Contrary…

·         Media can adversely affect the thinking capability of individuals and instill negative or destructive thinking patterns in the society as a whole. As already said before, media has the power to form and alter opinions. This means media can portray an ordinary thing so negatively that it may force people to think or act in quite the opposite way. Media glorifies violence and contains graphic descriptions or images. When viewed by the vulnerable portion of the society, i.e., the children, it can have grave effects on their upcoming and thinking patterns. 

·         The media can sometimes go out of the way in advertising or glorifying certain issues. Usually, a bad or detrimental message is packaged in a glorious way and is made accessible to the public. Movies that depict filthy rich thieves who don’t bat an eyelid before killing someone or extorting someone and the getting away with it, sure give entertainment to people. At the same time, it encourages them to act in a way that promises adventure and thrill in life. This way, media glorifies the bad aspects of people and encourages them to act in forbidden ways.

·         Negativity: To some extent, media is responsible for generating negative feelings among those exposed to it. An early exposure to bold or violent films, books publishing adult content and news portraying ugly social practices has a deep impact on young minds. If children are bombarded with fight sequences, stunt work, sex and rape scenes, suicides and murders through books or movies, they are bound to leave a scar on these impressionable minds. And not just children, the unpleasant can impact even an adult's mind. Adults may have the maturity to distinguish between the good and the bad, but bombarding only the bad can affect anyone at least at the subconscious level. Haven't you had experiences of a bad dream after watching a violent movie? Or of imagining something scary happening to you after watching a horror film? Or a sudden fear gripping your mind after reading about a murder in your city? The reality should be depicted but not so gaudily that it'll have a lasting impact on people's minds.

·         Health Problems: Media has negative effects on the physical and psychological well-being of society. People spending hours in front of a television or surfing the Internet experience eye problems. Lack of physical activity leads to obesity problems. Media influences public opinion and impacts the choices that people make. The media does play a role in portraying thin as beautiful and fat as ugly. It has led to a general opinion that size-zero is the in thing and fat and chubby are out. This makes the overweight feel out of place. They are ready to starve themselves to lose weight. This can and has led to increasing cases of anorexia. An inferiority complex and lowered confidence in people with not-so-perfect bodies can lead to eating disorders. In a survey done on fifth graders by the National Institute on Media and the Family, it was found that kids had become dissatisfied with their bodies after watching a video of a certain very popular artiste and a certain scene from a popular TV show (names omitted on purpose).

Conclusion

The media industry operates within a social context as one of the many sub systems. From the use of the normative press theories as a background behind historic events such as apartheid and Germany under Hitler’s rule as well as the more as the more libertarian states such as Great Britain and America it is evident that media industry can have a profound effect on the society with its function.

REFERENCES

1.        Nerone, John (2006). "Approaches to Media History". In Valdivia, Angharad N.. A companion to media studies. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 102. ISBN 978-1-4051-4174-1.

2.       Manohar, Uttara. "Different Types of Mass Media". Buzzle.com. http://www.buzzle.com/articles/different-types-of-mass-media.html.

3.       The Role and Influence of Mass Media". John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. http://www.cliffsnotes.com/study_guide/The-Role-and-Influence-of-Mass-Media.topicArticleId-26957,articleId-26946.html

4.       Smith, S.E. (4 October 2011). "What is Mass Media?". Conjecture Corporation. http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-mass-media.htm.

5.       Downing, John, ed. (2004). The SAGE Handbook of Media Studies. SAGE. p. 296. ISBN 978-0-7619-2169-1. http://books.google.com/books?id=isFAwqhITCUC&pg=PA296.

6.       Pember, Don R. (1987), Mass Media Law. 4^th ed. Dubuque, IA: William .C. Brown company publishers

7.       O’Shaughnessy, M. Stadler, J. 2005, Media and Society, An introduction, Australia: OUP Australia and Newzealand Croteau.

ACADEMIC LIBRARIES IN NIGERIA

ACADEMIC LIBRARIES BY OYEGUNLE JOHN

NATURE OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

An academic library is a library that is attached to academic institutions above the secondary level, serving the teaching and research needs of students and staff. These libraries serve two complementary purposes: to support the school's curriculum, and to support the research of the university faculty and students. Academic libraries are information centers established in support of the mission of their parent institutions to generate knowledge, equip people with knowledge in order to serve the society and advance the well being of mankind. Khanna defines academic libraries as those special libraries found in educational institutions and whose main purpose is to the special purpose of serving the special needs of the specialized or homogenous clientele.

The academic library in an educational institution also plays a part in supporting the research efforts and this role is more stronger in academic libraries than in public libraries, The library helps to conserve the research potential of the university or college . Aguolu (2002), noted that the university library is the heart of the university. This is because, the academic health, intellectual vitality and effectiveness of any university depends largely upon the state of health and excellence of its library which is its lifeblood.

HISTORY OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

Initially,  libraries and academic institutions existed outside of each other for hundreds of years. At the time, the method of teaching revolved around a professorial lecture and student recitation, though sometimes a lecture would be turned over to the university to be copied and purchased by students. As more lectures were copied and more copies of older lectures were reproduced, a storehouse for these materials took shape. By 1338, what is considered to be the first (ancient) academic library, the library at Sorbonne (University of Paris), contained over 1700 volumes of lectures. As more writing became available universities saw the value in having books that could not be included into the course of studies. Sir Thomas Bodley, a benefactor of the University of Oxford took it upon himself not just to fund the library collection, but to travel the continent to buy books on many subjects. (Budd, 1998) By 1605 it was noted to have contained more than 5000 books and manuscripts. The number of universities aided by the advent of printing, continued to grow and their curriculums broadened, reflecting a rise in literacy and a trend towards scholarship. It was during this period in the colonies that Harvard University was established. In 1638 John Harvard donated £800 and 300 books to establish what we know as the first state-side academic library. In 1667 Harvard’s first librarian was appointed. Use of the library was limited to senior members of the university and the library was only open from 11 am until 1pm. (Budd, 1998) Access was limited as no catalog system existed until 1723 and even then they were usually arranged by size or donor. By the beginning of the 20^th century there was definitely a shift from collection and preservation, to utility, and academic libraries began granting more access to faculty and some to students. The increase in use meant a need for more services, extended hours and more staff. As Institutions took a more active role in funding library collections and creating comfortable facilities, the library became less of a place to store dusty books and more of a place for dynamic learning. The first colleges in the United States were intended to train members of the clergy. The libraries associated with these institutions largely consisted of donated books on the subjects of theology and the classics. In 1766, Yale had approximately 4,000 volumes, second only to Harvard. Access to these libraries was restricted to faculty members and a few students: the only staff was a part-time faculty member or the president of the college. The priority of the library was to protect the books, not to allow patrons to use them. In 1849, Yale was open 30 hours a week, the University of Virginia was open nine hours a week, Columbia University four, and Bowdoin College only three. Students instead created literary societies and assessed entrance fees in order to build a small collection of usable volumes often in excess of what the university library held.

PHILOSOPHY ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

Philosophy of an academic library focuses on providing an active learning space and diverse services to meet the various needs of students, faculty, staff, parents, and alumni of The Wellington School community. Services such as 24/7 access to print and online resources, individual and group instruction and literature promotion offer students the opportunity to    become lifelong readers, learners and leaders. The Library supports the school curriculum and the lifelong learning of students, faculty, staff and parents by fostering positive attitudes toward reading. The Library provides more than 35,000 print volumes and seven subscription databases suitable for the community. The Library is open nearly 50 hours a week. With the online catalog and subscription databases, the community has access to many library materials and services 24/7. By providing students and faculty with new or unfamiliar resources and services, the librarians are able to enrich and expand or reshape learning and teaching. By actively reaching out beyond requests for materials and assistance, by anticipating needs and by maintaining a high profile in the life of the school, the librarians are active participants in the educational process.

PURPOSE OF THE ACADEMIC LIBRARY

The purpose of the academic libraries of higher education is advancement of learning and acquisition of knowledge.

ü The first purpose of academic of libraries, therefore, has been to be there when they were required. It is not possible to create a library instantly. It takes time. So most libraries are passive institutions, waiting to be used. Nor is it possible to purchase books or pamphlets or journals instantaneously, even in the electronic age.

ü The second purpose of libraries, therefore, has been to acquire, to make accessible and to preserve information which a user may need, to have the information ready when the person realises their need for that information.

ROLES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

1.     The role of the academic library is to serve the mission of the system under which it has been created, which includes community colleges, technical colleges, junior colleges, 4-year colleges and universities. The support of teaching requires material for class readings and for student papers. In the past, the material for class readings, intended to supplement lectures as prescribed by the instructor, has been called reserves. In the period before electronic resources became available, the reserves were supplied as actual books or as photocopies of appropriate journal articles. Traditionally, one copy of a book was made available for each 10 students — this is practical for large classes only if paperback copies are available, and the books reused from term to term.

2.     Another role is to provide a service of reference and lending material appropriate to the needs of the staff and students of the institution.

3.     The academic library provides education and this means that it should be used as a dynamic instrument for explaining and expanding the horizons of knowledge .Khanna notes that it exists to feed and nourish the intellect of students and staff and also invite all those who enter its portals to fully participate its intellectual and cultural life

4.     Wilson and Tauber note that the role of  modern academic libraries range from conserving knowledge , teaching, research and development, publication to promote academic visibility, extension services and interpretation.

5.     Beenham and Harrison define the main objectives of an academic library as; to serve the needs of the academic community, to provide reference materials at appropriate levels, to provide study areas for users, to provide a lending service appropriate to the different types of users and to provide an active information service

CHALLENGES OF ACADEMIC LIBRARIES

Funding

Funding is a very great problem for the various libraries. The academic institutions that host the libraries do not most times allocate adequate funds for the growth of the library. In Nigeria, corruption had enveloped the life of our leaders. The little fund allocated for  the library are not well spent

Invisible Infrastructure

Another component is the invisible content and costs of libraries. Many users are simply unaware of the expense of acquiring and managing information resources or the amount of value added by libraries and librarians. Considerable professional time and vast amounts of paraprofessional and clerical time are devoted to the processes of selecting, collecting, organizing, preserving, and conserving materials so that they are available for access. Despite the expanding scope of library services, more people seem to claim that they never go to the library anymore because everything they need is online.

The invisibility is partly due to the successes of the institution. Good library design means that people can find what they need, when they need it, in a form they want it. Good design is less obvious than bad design, and thus libraries risk being victims of their own success. The selection process requires a continuing dialog with the user community to determine current

needs, continuous scanning of available resources, and judicious application of financial resources. Once selected, the items are collected, whether in physical form or by acquiring access rights. This process, which requires negotiation with publishers and others who hold the rights to desired items, sometimes takes months or years, depending on the materials and the rights. As new items are acquired, metadata are created to describe their form, content, and relationship to other items in the collection. Once in the collection, resources must be preserved and conserved to ensure continuous availability over time. The invisibility of information work was identified long ago (Paisley, 1980), but the implications of this invisibility are only, now becoming widely apparent.

Content and Collections

Until very recently, libraries were judged by their collections rather than by their services. Scholars sought out, and traveled to, the great collections of the world. The collections of major libraries are much more than the sum of their parts; disparate items are brought together and relationships between items are identified. But what does it mean “to collect” in today’s environment, when libraries provide access to content for which no physical artifact is acquired? The question is further complicated by the fact that access may be temporary for the term of a contract, rather than (relatively) permanent, as for purchased material.

Preservation and Access

While little agreement may exist on the definition of a library “collection,” most librarians would agree that the collections must be preserved so that they remain accessible. Portions of physical collections are crumbling, and libraries are undertaking cooperative efforts to preserve the content, physical artifacts, or both. Preservation of digital collections is yet more complex and potentially even more expensive than preserving printed resources. Most printed volumes will survive “benign neglect,” provided they are shelved under adequate climate controls. Digital resources must be continually migrated to new software and new technologies; active management is required for preservation (Smith, 1999). When a library owns the rights to the digital content, the library presumably is responsible for maintaining continual access, absent other cooperative agreements.

Libraries face a broad range of challenges in preserving digital resources, including continual migration to new formats and new media as they become available. (Borgman, in press). Some of the preservation issues are within libraries’ sphere of influence, but many are outside their immediate control.

v The major challenges include digitization of collections, electronic access and the subsequent privacy and intellectual property issues, competition from online search engines, information literacy, value added services for the “new” student and faculty including distance education students, and the education and skills needed by today’s librarian to address these issues.

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SERVICES PROVIDED BYACADEMIC LIBRARIES.

The academic library performs myriad functions among which are

Ø The use of RSS service to inform their users of library news and developments in a way that resembles the “news device” that many libraries still have, often in collaboration with the RSS service: changes to the library schedule, new acquisitions, library renovations, exhibitions. Etc.

Ø Assisting staffs and students of the institution in acquisition of general information materials relevant to the curriculum and search interest of the users.

Ø Provision of online information database   for their users so that they can access information on various information platforms. The use of databases is very relevant. AGORA, TEEAL, HINARI, etc.

Ø Education of  library users on the importance of the library and benefits that can be derived from using the library is another service rendered by academic libraries.

CONCLUSION

The academic library is very essential to the existence of the academic institution. Academic libraries must decide what focus they take in collecting materials since no single library can supply everything. When there are particular areas of specialization in academic libraries these are often referred to as niche collections. These collections are often the basis of a special collection department and may include original papers, artwork, and artifacts written or created by a single author or about a specific subject

REFERENCES

v Khannaa,J.K.Fundementals of library organisation.New Delhi:Ess Ess Publications, 1987.

v Budd, J. (1998). The Academic Library: Its Context, Its Purpose, and Its Operation Englewood: Libraries Unlimited.

v Hoare, Peter (1997). Academic Libraries in International Encyclopedia of Information and Library Science, Ed. John Feather and Paul Sturges. New York, New York: Routledge. pp. 2.

v Beenham, Rosemary and Harrison,Collin..The basics of librarianship. 3rd.ed.London:Clive Bingley, 1990...

v Budd, John. M.. The Academic Library: Its Context, Its Purpose, and Its Operation. Englewood, Colorado: Libraries Unlimited., 2008.p. 30–31.

v Paisley, W. J. (1980). Information and work. In B. Dervin & M. J. Voigt (Eds),Progress in the Communication Sciences (Vol. 2, pp. 114-165). Norwood, NJ:Ablex.

v Lynch, C. A. (2001). Metadata Harvesting and the Open Archives Initiative. ARL Bimonthly Report 217, 1-9.

v Borgman, C. L. (in press). The invisible library: paradox of the globalinformation infrastructure. Library Trends, Special Issue on Research Questions for the Field.

v Wilson, L.and Tauber, M.F.(1980)Univesity libray.New York:Columbia, 1980.

v Borgman, C. L. (2000). From Gutenberg to the Global Information Infrastructure: Access to Information in the Networked World. Cambridge, MA:The MIT Press.